واژگان هندوستانی

هندوستانی، که به آن هندی-اردو نیز گفته می‌شود، مانند همه زبان‌های هندوآریایی، دارای یک پایه اصلی واژگانی مشتق‌شده از زبان سانسکریت است که آن را از طریق پراکریت به دست آورده‌است.[1] بدین ترتیب گونه‌های معیار زبان هندوستانی (هندی-اردو) دارای واژگان مشترک بسیاری، به ویژه در سطح محاوره‌ای، هستند.[2] با این وجود، در سخنرانی‌های رسمی، هندی تمایل به استفاده از واژگان سانسکریت دارد، در حالی که اردو به فارسی و گاه عربی رو می‌آورد.[3] این تفاوت در تاریخ هندوستانی نهفته‌است که در آن زبان میانجی هندوستانی در مناطق شهری سلطان‌نشین دهلی (مانند دهلی، لکهنو و حیدرآباد) شروع به گرفتن وام‌واژه از فارسی کرد. این گویش اردو نامیده شد.[4][5]

گویش‌های اصلی هندی در کنار اردو به پیشرفت ادامه می‌دادند و به گفته پروفسور افروز تاج «تمایز میان هندی و اردو عمدتاً تفاوت سبکی بود؛ یک شاعر می‌توانست از غنای واژگانی اردو برای ایجاد هاله‌ای از پیچیدگی ظریف، یا از واژگان ساده روستایی گویش‌های عامیانه هندی برای برانگیختن زندگی عامیانه روستا استفاده کند. جایی در این میان زبان روزمره‌ای که بیشتر مردم به آن صحبت می‌کردند، قرار داشت. این اصطلاح هندوستانی اغلب به این زبان روزمره گفته می‌شود.»[5] در هند استعماری، واژگانی از زبان‌های ژرمنی و رومی مبلغان مسیحی نیز به هندی-اردو شدند، برای نمونه پادری (دیواناگری: पादरी، نستعلیق: پادری) از padre، به معنای کشیش.[6]

پس از چندپارگی هند، نیروهای سیاسی در داخل هند تلاش کردند تا هندی را بیشتر سانسکریته کنند،[7] در حالی که نیروهای سیاسی در پاکستان برای حذف کلمات مشتق‌شده پراکریت/سانسکریت از اردو و جایگزینی آن‌ها با واژه‌های فارسی و عربی فعالیت می‌کردند.[8] علی‌رغم این تلاش‌های دولت، در صنعت فیلم‌سازی بالیوود همچنان فیلم‌های خود را به زبان اصلی هندوستانی (هندی-اردو) منتشر می‌کند، که به راحتی توسط گوینده‌های هر دو گونه قابل درک است.[9] افزون بر این، بسیاری از کانال‌های تلویزیونی مشابه در آن سوی مرز مشاهده می‌شوند.[10]

دسته‌بندی زبانی

هندی (हिन्दी هیندی) یکی از زبان‌های هندوآریایی از خانواده زبان‌های هندواروپایی است؛ بنابراین هسته واژگان هندی از نظر ریشه‌شناسی هندواروپایی ایت. با این وجود وام‌واژگان بسیاری از زبان‌های بیگانه در این زبان یافت می‌شوند.

وام‌واژه‌ها

به دلیل اینکه هندی‌ها سده‌های بسیار با اروپایی‌ها، مردمان ترک، مردم عرب، ایرانیان و مردم شرق آسیا همجوار بوده‌اند، هندی واژگان بی شماری را از زبان‌های بیگانه جذب کرده‌است، که اغلب این وام‌ها کاملاً در واژگان اصلی ادغام شده‌اند. رایج‌ترین وام از زبان‌های خارجی از سه نوع تماس مختلف حاصل می‌شود. ارتباط نزدیک با مردم همسایه که سایر زبان‌های هند، چینی، برمه‌ای و زبان‌های زبان‌های آستروآسیایی بومی شمال هند را شامل می‌شوند. پس از سده‌ها تهاجم از سوی ایران و خاورمیانه، به ویژه در زمان امپراتوری گورکانی، واژگان بسیاری از فارسی، عربی و ترکی وارد هندی و در آن جذب شده‌اند. سپس استعمار اروپاییان واژگانی را از پرتغالی، فرانسوی، هلندی و به ویژه انگلیسی به هندی وارد کرده‌است. برخی از واژگان رایج در زیر آمده‌اند.

زبان‌های آستروآسیایی (देशज دیشج)

واژه	معنا
आलू آلو ālū	سیب‌زمینی
खोज کهوج khoj	کشف
चावल چاول cāwal	دانه‌های برنج
चूल्हा چولها cūlhā	اجاق گاز
झोल جهول jhol	آبگوشت
टांग ٹانگ ṭaṅg	پا
ढोल ڈهول ḍhol	دُهُل، طبل
पेट پیٹ peṭ	شکم

چینی (चीनी چینی)

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
चाय چای cāy	چای	茶 chá
चीनी چینی cīnī	شکر
लीची لیچی līcī	سرخالو	茘枝 lìzhī

عربی (अरबी عربی)

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
अक़्ल عقل aqal	عقل و خرد	عقل ‘aql
असली اصلیaslī	اصلی	أصل ’aṣl
इलाक़ा علاقه ilāqā	منطقه	علاقة `alāqa
वज़न وزن vazan	وزن	وزن wazn
क़बर قبر qabr	گور	قبر qubr
ख़बर خبر k͟habar	خبر	خبر khabar
ख़ाली خالی k͟hālī	خالی	خالی khālī
ख़्याल خیال k͟hayāl	خیال	خیال khayal
ग़रीब غریب ġarīb	فقیر	غریب gharīb
जवाब جواب javāb	پاسخ	جواب jawāb
जमा جمع jamā	جمع	جمع jam‘
तारीख़ تاریخ tārīk͟h	تاریخ	تاریخ tārīkh
दुनिया دنیا duniyā	جهان	دنیا dunya
नक़ल نقل naqal	جعلی	نقل naql
फ़क़ीर فقیر faqīr	فقیر	فقیر faqīr
बदल بدل badal	تبادل	بدل badl
बाक़ी باقی bāqī	یازمانده	بقی baqīy
साहब صاحب sāhab	آقا	صاحب ṣāḥib
हिसाब حساب hisāb	برآورد	حساب ḥisāb

فارسی (फ़ारसी فارسی)

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
आवाज़ آواز āvāz	صدا	آواز
अंदाज़ انداز andāz	حدس	اندازه
आईना آینا āīnā	آینه	آینه
आराम آرام ārām	آرام	آرام
आहिस्ता آهسته āhistā	آهسته	آهسته
काग़ज़ کاغذ kāġaz	کاغذ	کاغذ
ख़राब خراب k͟harāb	بد	خراب
ख़ूब خوب k͟hūb	خوب	خوب
गरम گرم garam	گرم	گرم
चश्मा چشمه caśmā	عینک	چشم
चाकरी چاکری cākrī	کار	چاکر
चादर چادر cādar	پتو	چادر
जान جان jān	عزیز	جان
जगह جگه jagah	جا	جایگاه
देगची دگچی degcī	دیگچه، قابلمه	دیگچه
दम دم dam	تنفس	دم
देर دیر der	دیر	دیر
दुकान دکان dukān	فروشگاه	دکان
पर्दा پرده pardā	پرده	پرده
बद بد bad	بد	بد
बाग़ باغ bāġ	باغ	باغ
मज़ा مزه mazā	شوخی	مزه
रास्ता راسته rāstā	راه	راسته
रोज़ روز roz	هرروز	روز
हिन्दू هندو Hindū	هندو	هندو
पसंद پسند pasand	سپاس و قدردانی	پسند

ترکی (तुर्की ترکی)

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
उर्दू اردو Urdu	اردو	ordu
क़ैंची قینچی qãincī	قیچی
क़ोरमा قورمه qormā	قورمه	kavurma
बावर्ची باورچی bāwarchī	آشپز	Ashchi
बेगम بیگم begam	بانو	begüm
लाश لاش lāś	کالبد، جسد	lesh
क़ुली قلی qulī	کارگر ، باربر

پرتغالی (पुर्तगाली پرتگالی)

وام‌های پرتغالی بیشتر موارد خانگی، میوه‌ها و مفاهیم مذهبی مربوط به کلیسای کاتولیک را توصیف می‌کند:

خانگی

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
अलमारी الماری almāri	کابینت، کمد	armário
इस्तरी استریistrī	اتو کردن	estirar
इस्पात ایسپات ispāt	فولاد	espada
गमला گملا gamlā	سبد	gamela
चाबी چابی cābī	کلید	chave
जंगला جنگلا jaṅglā	نرده پنجره	janela
तम्बाकू تمباکو tambākū	تنباکو	tobacco
तौलिया تولیه tauliyā	حوله	toalha
फ़ीता فیتا fītā	توری ، روبان	fita
बराम्दा برآمده 'baramdā	ایوان	varanda
बाल्टी بالٹی bāltī	سطل	balde
मेज़ میز mez	میز	mesa
साबुन صابن sābun	صابون	sabão

خوراکی

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
अनानास انناس anānās	آناناس	ananás
काजू کاجو kāju	بادام هندی	caju
गोभी گوبهیgobhī	کلم ، گل کلم	couve
पाउ रोटी پاو روٹی pāu roṭī	نان برش‌خورده	pão
पपीता پپیتا papītā	پاپایا	papaia
साबूदाना سابودانا 'sābūdānā	نخل ساگو	sagu
सलाद سلاد salād	سالاد	salada

دین

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
क्रूस کروس krūs	cross	cruz
गिरजा گرجا girjā	کلیسا	igreja
पादरी پادری padrī	کشیش	padre

سایر

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
अंग्रेज़ انگریز aṅgrez	انگلیس	inglês

فرانسوی (फ़्रान्सीसी فرانسیسی)

امروزه واژگان فرانسوی کمی در هندی یافت می‌شوند.

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
कारतूस کارتوس kārtūs	فشنگ	cartouche
रेस्तराँ ریستوراں restarā̃	رستوران	restaurant

انگلیسی (अंग्रेज़ी انگریزی)

بیشتر وام‌های اروپایی به زبان هندی-اردو از طریق انگلیسی وارد شده‌اند و شامل مفاهیم مدنی و خانگی هستند:

زندگی مدنی

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
अफ़सर افسر afsar	افسر	officer
जेल جیل jel	زندان	jail
डॉक्टर ڈاکٹر ḍôktar	پزشک	doctor
पुलिस پولیس pulis	پلیس	police
बैंक بینک baiṅk	بانک	bank
वोट ووٹ voṭ	رای	vote
स्कूल اسکول skūl/iskūl	مدرسه	school

خانگی

واژه	معنا	شکل اصلی
कप کپ kap	فنجان	cup
गिलास گلاس gilās	لیوان	glass
टेबल ٹیبل ṭebal	میز	table
बॉक्स بکس bôks	جعبه	box
लालटेन لالٹین lālṭen	فانوس	lantern
कनस्तर کنستر kanastar	قوطی	canister

جستارهای وابسته

منابع

Sebeok, Thomas Albert (1971). Current Trends in Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. p. 688. Retrieved 21 November 2014. This Proto-Prakrit differs from Sanskrit partly in the phonology and the vocabulary which are common to all modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars.
Bhatia, Tej K.; Koul, Ashok (2000). Colloquial Urdu. Psychology Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-415-13540-5. Retrieved 21 November 2014. The languages share a virtually identical grammar and also possess a very large body of common vocabulary which consists mainly of words used in everyday, normal conversation.
Bhatia, Tej K.; Koul, Ashok (2000). Colloquial Urdu. Psychology Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-415-13540-5. Retrieved 21 November 2014. In additional, although Urdu and Hindi share a large number of colloquial words, formal and literary Hindi and Urdu can differ markedly in terms of vocabulary. For higher registers, Urdu still continues to draw on Perso-Arabic resources, but Hindi turns to Sanskrit.
Simpson, Andrew (30 August 2007). Language and National Identity in Asia. Oxford University Press. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-0-19-153308-2. Retrieved 21 November 2014. Considered from a historical point of view, the Hindustani-Hindi-Urdu complex developed out of a common broadly-spoken lingua franca that came to be used through much of north and central India from the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries during the dynasties of Muslim rulers that pre-dated the Mughal rule. During this time, Persian was in force as the official language of administration and writing but was supplemented by a mixture of the speech of the Delhi area ('Khari Boli', which had Sanskrit as its ultimate ancestor) together with many Persian loanwords as very general means of oral communication among different parts of the Muslim-controlled territories. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, this form of speech was patronized by the rulers of various southern kingdoms and resulted in the growth of an early literature in a language known as Dakhini or southern Hindi-Urdu.
Taj, Afroz (1997). "About Hindi-Urdu". The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved 21 November 2014. Then, about seven centuries ago, the dialects of Hindi spoken in the region of Delhi began to undergo a linguistic change. In the villages, these dialects continued to be spoken much as they had been for centuries. But around Delhi and other urban areas, under the influence of the Persian-speaking Sultans and their military administration, a new dialect began to emerge which would be called Urdu. While Urdu retained the fundamental grammar and basic vocabulary of its Hindi parent dialects, it adopted the Persian writing system, "Nastaliq" and many additional Persian vocabulary words. Indeed, the great poet Amir Khusro (1253-1325) contributed to the early development of Urdu by writing poems with alternating lines of Persian and Hindi dialect written in Persian script. What began humbly as a hodge-podge language spoken by the Indian recruits in the camps of the Sultan's army, by the Eighteenth Century had developed into a sophisticated, poetic language. It is important to note that over the centuries, Urdu continued to develop side by side with the original Hindi dialects, and many poets have written comfortably in both. Thus the distinction between Hindi and Urdu was chiefly a question of style. A poet could draw upon Urdu's lexical richness to create an aura of elegant sophistication, or could use the simple rustic vocabulary of dialect Hindi to evoke the folk life of the village. Somewhere in the middle lay the day to day language spoken by the great majority of people. This day to day language was often referred to by the all-encompassing term "Hindustani."
Shackle, C. (1 January 1990). Hindi and Urdu Since 1800. Heritage Publishers. p. 6. ISBN 9788170261629. Retrieved 21 November 2014.
George, Rosemary Marangoly (21 November 2013). Indian English and the Fiction of National Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 213. ISBN 978-1-107-72955-1. Retrieved 21 November 2014. =Elsewhere Gandhi advocated for both Hindi and Hindustani (an amalgam of Hindi and Persianized Urdu that was in use in the north and could be written in either Nagri or Urdu/Persian script). In 1945, Gandhi resigned from the Hindi Sahitya when it advocated that Hindi was to be written exclusively in the Devanagri script. Over time, as both Hindi and Urdu became increasingly linked with Hindu and Muslim identity respectively, Hindustani had few advocates in India with voices powerful enough to drown out the opposition to it, especially after the trauma of partition. Hindi was deliberately Sanskritized to underline its Hindu roots and to create a purer etymology for the language.
Everaert, Christine (2010). Tracing the Boundaries Between Hindi and Urdu. Brill. p. 268. ISBN 9789004177314. Retrieved 21 November 2014. According to some, Pakistani Urdu has been following the path of religious fanatics in the last twenty-five to thirty years, removing Hindi words from Urdu and replacing them by Persian and Arabic words. The Arab states of the Persian Gulf, where Pakistanis go in huge numbers to work during several years of their lives and who sponsor the conservative madaris, are taking the blame for this evolution. The foreign labourers returning to Pakistan after several years in Saudi Arabic and neighbouring countries are said to have been indoctrinated by their Arab hosts.
Simpson, Andrew (30 August 2007). Language and National Identity in Asia. Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-153308-2. Retrieved 21 November 2014. In their formal spoken and written forms, Hindi and Urdu share a common grammar and much basic vocabulary. When Hindi and Urdu are spoken informally by most of the population, the differences present and clearly discernible in formal language tend to disappear to a very significant extent, and the two varieties become both mutually intelligible and often difficult to tell apart. This frequently used, colloquial form of Hindi and Urdu used in everyday conversation by the majority of speakers has in the past regularly been referred to with the term 'Hindustani'. It is also the form of language standardly used in Bollywood films, which are widely enjoyed by speakers of both Hindi and Urdu.
Patel, Aakar. "Kids have it right: boundaries of Urdu and Hindi are blurred". Firstpost. Network 18. Retrieved 21 November 2014. Cartoon Network, Pogo and the rest were available in English also, of course. However, according to a cable operator from Allama Iqbal Town also quoted in the story, Pakistani children preferred their cartoons in Hindi. This is true of India also, where children including those studying in English schools, watch their cartoons only in Hindi.

This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

[Sebeok1971-1] Sebeok, Thomas Albert (1971). Current Trends in Linguistics. Walter de Gruyter. p. 688. Retrieved 21 November 2014. This Proto-Prakrit differs from Sanskrit partly in the phonology and the vocabulary which are common to all modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars.

[BhatiaKoul2000a-2] Bhatia, Tej K.; Koul, Ashok (2000). Colloquial Urdu. Psychology Press. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-415-13540-5. Retrieved 21 November 2014. The languages share a virtually identical grammar and also possess a very large body of common vocabulary which consists mainly of words used in everyday, normal conversation.

[BhatiaKoul2000b-3] Bhatia, Tej K.; Koul, Ashok (2000). Colloquial Urdu. Psychology Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-415-13540-5. Retrieved 21 November 2014. In additional, although Urdu and Hindi share a large number of colloquial words, formal and literary Hindi and Urdu can differ markedly in terms of vocabulary. For higher registers, Urdu still continues to draw on Perso-Arabic resources, but Hindi turns to Sanskrit.

[Simpson2007a-4] Simpson, Andrew (30 August 2007). Language and National Identity in Asia. Oxford University Press. pp. 62–63. ISBN 978-0-19-153308-2. Retrieved 21 November 2014. Considered from a historical point of view, the Hindustani-Hindi-Urdu complex developed out of a common broadly-spoken lingua franca that came to be used through much of north and central India from the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries during the dynasties of Muslim rulers that pre-dated the Mughal rule. During this time, Persian was in force as the official language of administration and writing but was supplemented by a mixture of the speech of the Delhi area ('Khari Boli', which had Sanskrit as its ultimate ancestor) together with many Persian loanwords as very general means of oral communication among different parts of the Muslim-controlled territories. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, this form of speech was patronized by the rulers of various southern kingdoms and resulted in the growth of an early literature in a language known as Dakhini or southern Hindi-Urdu.

[Taj-5] Taj, Afroz (1997). "About Hindi-Urdu". The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Retrieved 21 November 2014. Then, about seven centuries ago, the dialects of Hindi spoken in the region of Delhi began to undergo a linguistic change. In the villages, these dialects continued to be spoken much as they had been for centuries. But around Delhi and other urban areas, under the influence of the Persian-speaking Sultans and their military administration, a new dialect began to emerge which would be called Urdu. While Urdu retained the fundamental grammar and basic vocabulary of its Hindi parent dialects, it adopted the Persian writing system, "Nastaliq" and many additional Persian vocabulary words. Indeed, the great poet Amir Khusro (1253-1325) contributed to the early development of Urdu by writing poems with alternating lines of Persian and Hindi dialect written in Persian script. What began humbly as a hodge-podge language spoken by the Indian recruits in the camps of the Sultan's army, by the Eighteenth Century had developed into a sophisticated, poetic language. It is important to note that over the centuries, Urdu continued to develop side by side with the original Hindi dialects, and many poets have written comfortably in both. Thus the distinction between Hindi and Urdu was chiefly a question of style. A poet could draw upon Urdu's lexical richness to create an aura of elegant sophistication, or could use the simple rustic vocabulary of dialect Hindi to evoke the folk life of the village. Somewhere in the middle lay the day to day language spoken by the great majority of people. This day to day language was often referred to by the all-encompassing term "Hindustani."

[Shackle1990-6] Shackle, C. (1 January 1990). Hindi and Urdu Since 1800. Heritage Publishers. p. 6. ISBN 9788170261629. Retrieved 21 November 2014.

[George2013-7] George, Rosemary Marangoly (21 November 2013). Indian English and the Fiction of National Literature. Cambridge University Press. p. 213. ISBN 978-1-107-72955-1. Retrieved 21 November 2014. =Elsewhere Gandhi advocated for both Hindi and Hindustani (an amalgam of Hindi and Persianized Urdu that was in use in the north and could be written in either Nagri or Urdu/Persian script). In 1945, Gandhi resigned from the Hindi Sahitya when it advocated that Hindi was to be written exclusively in the Devanagri script. Over time, as both Hindi and Urdu became increasingly linked with Hindu and Muslim identity respectively, Hindustani had few advocates in India with voices powerful enough to drown out the opposition to it, especially after the trauma of partition. Hindi was deliberately Sanskritized to underline its Hindu roots and to create a purer etymology for the language.

[Everaert2010-8] Everaert, Christine (2010). Tracing the Boundaries Between Hindi and Urdu. Brill. p. 268. ISBN 9789004177314. Retrieved 21 November 2014. According to some, Pakistani Urdu has been following the path of religious fanatics in the last twenty-five to thirty years, removing Hindi words from Urdu and replacing them by Persian and Arabic words. The Arab states of the Persian Gulf, where Pakistanis go in huge numbers to work during several years of their lives and who sponsor the conservative madaris, are taking the blame for this evolution. The foreign labourers returning to Pakistan after several years in Saudi Arabic and neighbouring countries are said to have been indoctrinated by their Arab hosts.

[Simpson2007b-9] Simpson, Andrew (30 August 2007). Language and National Identity in Asia. Oxford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-153308-2. Retrieved 21 November 2014. In their formal spoken and written forms, Hindi and Urdu share a common grammar and much basic vocabulary. When Hindi and Urdu are spoken informally by most of the population, the differences present and clearly discernible in formal language tend to disappear to a very significant extent, and the two varieties become both mutually intelligible and often difficult to tell apart. This frequently used, colloquial form of Hindi and Urdu used in everyday conversation by the majority of speakers has in the past regularly been referred to with the term 'Hindustani'. It is also the form of language standardly used in Bollywood films, which are widely enjoyed by speakers of both Hindi and Urdu.

[10] Patel, Aakar. "Kids have it right: boundaries of Urdu and Hindi are blurred". Firstpost. Network 18. Retrieved 21 November 2014. Cartoon Network, Pogo and the rest were available in English also, of course. However, according to a cable operator from Allama Iqbal Town also quoted in the story, Pakistani children preferred their cartoons in Hindi. This is true of India also, where children including those studying in English schools, watch their cartoons only in Hindi.